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Bukhara is one of the most ancient cities of Central Asia. Most of the historic buildings in this romantic Eastern city, which attracts tourists from all over the world, belong to period of the late Middle Ages. Nevertheless, numerous archaeological excavations have revealed thick cultural layers, i.e. traces of ancient settlements in locations providing favorable conditions of life. Hence, Bukhara never changed its location but grew vertically. In archaeological trenches at a depth of 20 metres the remnants of dwellings, public buildings, and fortifications have been discovered. The age of these historical constructions have been evaluated on the basis of the artifacts associated with them: ceramic pottery, fireplaces, coins bearing images and inscriptions, antique jewellery, tools of artisan, i.e. everything that is associated with the activities and culture of human society. The most deep-seated layers, which belong to the period of antiquity from the 3d century B.C. till the 4th century A.D., are also most thick. The upper layers belong the period of the city from the 9th century till the beginning of the 20th centuries. This proves that Bukhara is at least 2,500 years old, just like Samarkand.

In the ancient past the Bukhara oasis was a part of Soghdiana a vast region of Central Asia, which had been conquered by Alexander the Great. After seizing Samarkand, Alexander had set forward his army into the depth of the Bukhara oasis.

In the period of the 6th and 7th centuries of feudal Sogdiana there was marked an active process of town formation, when ancient settlements surrounding Bukhara became the towns of Varakhsha, Vardanzi, Ramish (Ramitan), Kermine, Paikend. Archaeological excavations in Varakhsha have discovered a palace of the Bukharkhudats with exquisite mural paintings that is in no way worse in comparison with the famous murals of Pendjikent.

All these towns had more or less a similar structural pattern: the ark (citadel), the shakhristan - well-planned residential core, and a necropolis beyond the town limits where crypts were built to accommodate ceramic urns with the bones of the dead. Bukhara of the early feudal period also followed this pattern of development. It sprawled over an area of 40 hectares (98,8 acres).

The rectangular shakhristan was cut into four sections by two crossing main streets which led to gates opening out on all four sides of the world. This traditional layout of lowland cities reflected the ancient world outlook principles of the East. It symbolized the structure of the Universe and reflected the cosmogony in the order of things in nature and society.

In the north western section of the city (considered to be a place of honour) rose the Ark — the palace fortress of the Bukharkhudats. Beyond the walls of the Ark and the shakhristan sprawled the business quarters and artisan"s areas - the rabad with its residential neighborhoods of adobe-clay houses. The rabad was stimulated in its growth by the development of caravan trade: Bukhara was on the crossroads of ancient trade routes linking up China, Iran and India. At the western gates of the citadel were the divans - the state offices, and the palaces of the nobles. At the eastern gates stood a Christian church.

Such was Bukhara at the time of its conquest by the Arab caliphate. Finally it happened in 708, though incursions, diplomatic talks, siege and battles have begun already in 673 A.D. The country"s vassalage from the caliphate was not destroyed, even after power in the region was taken over by the Samanides - a local dynasty of rulers - in the end of the 9th century. The Samanides minted coins bearing the names of the ruling caliphs and paid taxes to the caliphate treasury irrespective of their almost complete political and economic independence. At the turn of the century Bukhara has developed into a major cultural and religious center of the Islamic world. It became known as the "dome of Islam", although the city was the asylum of numerous religions and cults.

Indeed, in the place-name of Bukhara it"s quite possibly reflected the former location here of pre-Islamic temples such as Zoroastrians, Buddhists, Manicheans, Christian"s churches and pagan temples. According to one of the versions the name of the city is derived from "vihara", which means Buddhist monastery, Haflzi Tanish, a sixteenth-century annalist of Bukhara wrote that the word "Bukhara" is derived from "bukhar", which amidst the Zoroastrian means "source of knowledge". Also the Uigur and Chinese heathens named their pagan temples "Bukhar". The real name of the city was Lumdjikat.

Historical monuments of Bukhara

Kosh-Madrasah. Abdullakhan Madrasah.
In the same district with the Samanid mausoleum and Chashma-iy-Ayub, not far from the park, stands one of the most attractive ensembles, "Kosh-Madrasah", which are typical of Bukhara. The word "Kosh" means "double" and, indeed, these two educational institutions face one another across a narrow street. The first of them is Modari-khan Madrasah that was put up by Abdullakhan II (Abdulla-khan) on his mother"s behalf. The date of erection 974 hijra (1566-67) is inscribed with majolica in verse above the entrance. As to composition it is a standard educational institution with a hostel for students and instructors around the courtyard, public halls of the mosque and lecture-rooms - darskhana - along both sides of portal in the interior of the building. The main front is richly faced with multicolor brick mosaic. The second building of Abdullakhan Madrasah was erected in 1588-90 and is an outstanding piece of medieval architecture.

Bakha ad-Din Nakshband Complex.
Bakha ad-Din is a ritual ensemble, built in the former centre of the dervishes" Order Nahshbandiya. Its spiritual guide, Sheikh Bakha ad-Din was conveyed to earth in 1389 near Kasri-Arifon settlement (now the Kagan district in the Bukhara region). Toward the 16th century the Bakha ad-Din ensemble has acquired characteristic features of a necropolis combined with a ritual place. In 1544 Khan Abdul Aziz the Second built a burial vault -"dakhma" - above the Sheikh"s grave, with a carved marble fence, and at a distance - the biggest ever khana-gah.
12 km outside the city, this holy place of Islam is truly inspiring many people. Pilgrims, young and old, men, women, children, from near and far gather for blessings, prayers and meal together in these peaceful and serene surroundings. A museum gives you more insight into yet a different aspect of Central Asian"s fascinating history.

Chor-Minor.
On an esplanade that is situated down the road a piece to north-east from Labi-hauz, stands out an unusual monument "Chor-Minor", which means, "four minarets". It is the only intact part of former large Madrasah built by a rich Turkmen, Khalif Niyaz-kul.

Kukeldash Madrasah.
Kukeldash Madrasah (1568-69) bordering the Lyabi-hauz is among the biggest (80 x 60 meters) and most monumental in Central Asia, with over 130 hujras as well as a splendid example of "white interior". The entrance gate is the particular interest, inlay and fixtures are devoid of glue or nails and covered with heraldic ornaments. Kulbala Kukeldash is the name of Khan"s foster-brother who was the builder of this structure.

Ark citadel & Grand mosque.
In the northwestern section of the city rose the Ark - the palace fortress of the bukharkhudats. Beyond the walls of the Ark and the shakhristan sprawled the business quarters and artisan"s areas - the rabad with its residential neighborhoods of adobe-clay houses. The rabad was stimulated in its growth by the development of caravan trade: Bukhara was on the crossroads of ancient trade routes linking up China, Iran and India. At the western gates of the citadel were the divans - the state offices, and the palaces of the nobles. At the eastern gates stood a Christian church.
The oldest monument in Bukhara, the Ark - citadel and residence of the local rulers goes back to the 3d century B.C. Over the centuries, construction and destruction at the site of the Ark have accumulated an artificial hill 18 meters high. The last emirs of Bukhara built up the top layer. The fortifications were built up layer after layer one on top of the other till they developed into motley facing of the hill. There are few surviving buildings in the Ark since most of the wooden framework structures burnt out in a fire in 1920. The overall layout has been restored on the basis of historical documents.
The first of the structures that has survived to this day are the gates of the Ark which face west and open out on the Registan Square. The gates were built in the 18th century in the form of a massive portal fringed by double towers.
Just opposite the corridor outlet into the Ark raises the roofed gallery of the grand mosque. It has a layout of a big quarter mosque in which the main prayer hall with four columns supporting the roof is surrounded on three sides by a roofed gallery (avian). The decor displays typical features of the turn of the century.
The Registan square to the west of the Ark developed into the city"s social center during the pre-Arab period. Up to the I3th century, the square was built up with administrative buildings and palaces of the nobles. Later, the square was turned into a bazaar: at the entrance to the square sprawled Rasta-iy-tirgaron - rows of stand where gunsmiths sold their ware; in the center of the square rose Toki Ord Furushon arcade and a domed structure where head-dresses were sold. And all around was the noisy and colorful eastern market. Close to the entrance of the Ark were the arsenal, the office of the kushbegi (military chief), the Poyanda grand mosque, the quarter mosques of various guilds and also the madrasah Bozori Gusfand belonging to the butchers" guild. Also there was the dar ash-shifa (hospital), where, according to ancient sources, patients were given potions and special food for treatment.

Bolo-khauz.
Opposite the Ark is situated the Bolo-khauz complex of the 18th century which is the only monument of the Registan that survived intact. The colorfully painted gallery with the colonnade coupled with the minaret is reflected in the water of the pond.

Balyand Mosque.
A fine example of a quarter centre is the Balyand Mosque in the western part of the city, which was built at the beginning of the 16th century. It is a cube-shaped structure with a colonnade at the corner, and a refined interior. A paneling of hexahedral glazed tiles painted with gold, goes round the hall.

Kalyan Mosque.
Kalyan Mosque is equal with Bibi-Khonym Mosque of Samarkand in height. Although they are of the same type of building, they are absolutely different in terms of art of building. Monumental pylons serve as a support for the multidomed roofing of the galleries encircling the courtyard of Kalyan Mosque. The longitudinal axis of the courtyard ends up with a maksura, a portal and cupola building with a cruciform hall above which towers a massive blue cupola on a mosaic drum.

Kalyan Minaret (Minara-yi-Kalyan).
Kalyan Minaret was an observation tower and during the Bukhara Emirate the place for public executions. Many legends are linked to this grand construction such as the story of the master builder who prepared the foundation of alabaster and camel"s milk and then disappeared for two years, starting the brick work only after the base was firmly dried. There is a brick spiral staircase that twists up inside around the pillar and leads to the landing in sixteen-arched rotunda - skylight, which is based on a magnificent stalactite cornice (sharafa).